A study finds that people who carry umbrellas are more likely to have wet clothing. Which conclusion is most appropriate?
Correct answer: C. The finding shows an association, not necessarily causation
- A. Umbrella use causes wet clothing
- B. Wet clothing prevents umbrella use
- C. The finding shows an association, not necessarily causation
- D. The finding proves that rain has no effect
Explanation
The two factors are associated because both may be related to rainfall, which is a possible confounding factor. An observed association alone does not prove that one factor causes the other.
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About Epidemiology and Biostatistics
Epidemiology examines the distribution and causes of disease by person, place and time, using measures such as incidence, prevalence, mortality and case-fatality rates. Biostatistics covers data presentation, sampling, averages, variability, probability and interpretation of study results, while distinguishing association from causation.
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