Spore dissemination in some liverworts is aided by:

Explanation

(d) : An elater is a cell (or structure attached to a cell) that is hygroscopic and therefore will change shape in response to changes in moisture in the environment. Elaters come in a variety of forms but are always associated with plant spores. In plants that do not have seeds, they function in dispersing the spores to a new location. In the liverworts, elaters are cells that develop in the sporophyte alongside the spores. They are complete cells, usually with helical thickening at maturity that respond to moisture content. In most liverworts, the elaters are unattached, but in some leafy species (such as Frullania) a few elaters will remain attached to the inside of the sporangium (spore capsule). The elaters by hygroscopic movement help in spore dispersal.